Impact of cigarette price and tobacco control policies on youth smoking experimentation in Albania.

BACKGROUND: Albania has one of the highest smoking prevalence in Europe especially among the youth. There is a lack of evidence in Albania, as well as in most of Eastern Europe and middle-income countries, regarding the effect of price on smoking experimentation. OBJECTIVE: The study aims to assess the effect of price and tobacco control policies on youth smoking experimentation in Albania. METHODS: We used microdata from the Global Youth Tobacco Survey in Albania for 2004, 2009, 2015 and 2020. We constructed a pseudo-longitudinal dataset and estimated a split-population model to assess the hazard of smoking experimentation. RESULTS: Price is a significant predictor of smoking experimentation among teenagers in Albania for both males and females (p<0.001). Being male increases the odds for smoking experimentation by more than 50% as compared with females (p<0.001), whereas females appear to be more price sensitive. Peer and parent smoking are also important determinants for smoking experimentation. Introducing penalties for smokers and legal entities violating smoke-free policies implemented in 2014 is also associated with a lower hazard of smoking experimentation. CONCLUSION: Price is a significant predictor of smoking experimentation among teenagers in Albania for both males and females. A combination of increasing taxes and strengthening the rule of law to control tobacco use in public spaces, in addition to public awareness campaigns targeting both youth and smoking parents, could help to significantly reduce the probability of smoking experimentation.

Better cigarette tax policies and higher tobacco excise tax revenues.

BACKGROUND: In November 2021, the Tobacconomics team published the second edition of the Cigarette Tax Scorecard which evaluates cigarette taxation in each country based on four components-cigarette price, affordability change, tax share and tax structure. This study examines the relationship between the overall cigarette tax score and tobacco excise tax revenue between 2014 and 2018. METHODS: Using cigarette tax scores from the Tobacconomics Cigarette Tax Scorecard and tobacco excise tax revenue information from WHO, this analysis is based on ordinary least squares estimations to assess the association between the overall cigarette tax scores and tobacco excise tax revenues per capita controlling for countries' tobacco control environment, sociodemographic characteristics and country and year fixed effects. RESULTS: A 1-point higher overall cigarette tax score is associated with higher tobacco excise tax revenue per capita of $11.98 (in constant 2018 purchasing power parity international dollars). For low and middle-income countries and lower performing countries at baseline, a 1-point higher overall cigarette tax score is associated with higher tobacco excise tax revenue per capita of $11.32 and $6.92, respectively. If all countries had increased their scores to '5', the tobacco excise tax revenue per capita would have increased by 22.51%. CONCLUSIONS: Higher overall cigarette tax scores are associated with higher tobacco excise tax revenue per capita. Countries aiming to reach higher cigarette tax scores would be able to reduce tobacco use and increase their tobacco tax revenue, which can be allocated to development priorities.

As countries improve their cigarette tax policy, cigarette consumption declines.

BACKGROUND: This study examines the association between the Tobacconomics cigarette tax scores and cigarette consumption in 97 countries during the period of 2014-2020. METHODS: Data on countries' retail cigarette sales and overall cigarette tax scores from 2014 to 2020 are drawn from the proprietary Euromonitor International database and the Tobacconomics Cigarette Tax Scorecard (second edition). Information on countries' tobacco control environments and demographic characteristics is from the relevant years' WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic, and the World Bank's World Development Indicators database. Ordinary least squares regressions are employed to examine the link between countries' overall cigarette tax scores and cigarette consumption. All regressions control for countries' tobacco control environments, countries' demographic characteristics, year indicators and country fixed effects. RESULTS: Each unit increase in the overall cigarette tax scores is significantly associated with a reduction of 9% in countries' per-capita cigarette consumption during 2014-2020. The reduction is more pronounced in low and middle-income countries (9%) than in high-income countries (6%). The modest improvement in scores from 2014 to 2020 is associated with a reduction of 3.27% in consumption, while consumption could have been reduced by 20.74% had countries implemented optimal tax policies that would earn the highest score of 5. CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide evidence on the association between higher cigarette tax scores and lower cigarette consumption. To reduce tobacco consumption, governments must strive to implement all four components in the Cigarette Tax Scorecard at the highest level.

Health and Economic Impacts Assessment of O3 Exposure in Mexico.

Health effects related to exposure to air pollution such as ozone (O3) have been documented. The World Health Organization has recommended the use of the Sum of O3 Means Over 35 ppb (SOMO35) to perform Health Impact Assessments (HIA) for long-term exposure to O3. We estimated the avoidable mortality associated with long-term exposure to tropospheric O3 in 14 cities in Mexico using information for 2015. The economic valuation of avoidable deaths related to SOMO35 exposure was performed using the willingness to pay (WTP) and human capital (HC) approaches. We estimated that 627 deaths (95% uncertainty interval (UI): 227-1051) from respiratory diseases associated with the exposure to O3 would have been avoided in people over 30 years in the study area, which confirms the public health impacts of ambient air pollution. The avoidable deaths account for almost 1400 million USD under the WTP approach, whilst the HC method yielded a lost productivity estimate of 29.7 million USD due to premature deaths. Our findings represent the first evidence of the health impacts of O3 exposure in Mexico, using SOMO35 metrics.

Elasticidad precio y elasticidad ingreso de la demanda de cerveza en México / Price elasticity and income elasticity of the demand for beer in Mexico

Resumen: Objetivo: Estimar la elasticidad precio y la elasticidad ingreso de la demanda de cerveza en México. Material y métodos: Se utilizaron series mensuales de ventas y precios de cerveza de 2007 a 2019. Se estimó la elasticidad a largo plazo mediante un modelo de mínimos cuadrados ordinarios (MCO). La elasticidad en el corto plazo se estimó mediante un modelo de mínimos cuadrados ordinarios dinámicos (MCOD). Resultados: La elasticidad precio en el largo plazo fue de -1.40 (IC95%: -2.53 a -0.27) y -1.31 (IC95%: -2.46 a -0.15) en el corto plazo. La elasticidad ingreso de la demanda en el largo y en el corto plazo se estimó en 0.86 (IC95%: 0.44-1.29) y 0.93 (IC95%: 0.51-1.34), respectivamente. Conclusión: Los hallazgos de este estudio sugieren que las políticas fiscales pueden tener un impacto positivo en la salud de la población al reducir el consumo de cerveza.

Abstract: Objective: Estimate the price and income elasticities of the demand for beer in Mexico. Materials and methods: Monthly series on beer sales and prices from 2007 to 2019 were used. Long-term elasticity was estimated using ordinary least squares (OLS). Short-term elasticity was estimated using a dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS) model. Results: The price elasticity was in the long term of -1.40 (95%CI: -2.53 to -0.27) and -1.31 (95%CI: -2.46 to -0.15) in the short term. The income elasticity of demand in the long and short term was estimated at 0.86 (95%CI: 0.44-1.29 and 0.93 (95%CI: 0.51-1.34), respectively. Conclusions: The findings of this study suggest that fiscal policies may have a positive impact on the health of the population by reducing beer consumption.

Price elasticity and income elasticity of the demand for beer in Mexico / Elasticidad precio y elasticidad ingreso de la demanda de cerveza en México

Objective: Estimate the price and income elasticities of the demand for beer in Mexico. Materials and methods: Monthly series on beer sales and prices from 2007 to 2019 were used. Long-term elasticity was estimated using ordinary least squares (OLS). Short-term elasticity was estimated using a dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS) model. Results: The price elasticity was in the long term of -1.40 (95%CI: -2.53 to -0.27) and -1.31 (95%CI: -2.46 to -0.15) in the short term. The income elasticity of demand in the long and short term was estimated at 0.86 (95%CI: 0.44-1.29 and 0.93 (95%CI: 0.51-1.34), respectively. Conclusions: The findings of this study suggest that fiscal policies may have a positive impact on the health of the population by reducing beer consumption.

Lung cancer in Mexico: findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study, 1990-2016.

OBJECTIVE: To show lung cancer (LC) mortality and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) in Mexico. MATERIALS AND METHODS: With the visualization tools at the Global Burden of Disease Study website, we analyzed LC mortality and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) by state, sex, socio- demographic index (SDI), age, and risk factors between 1990 and 2016. RESULTS: Mortality rate decreased from 13.9 to 9.1 per 100 000 between 1990 and 2016. This reduction is greater among men. However, deaths by LC rose from 5 478 to 8 470. DALYs rate also decreased. Northern states with higher SDI face a larger burden from LC but exhibited greater reductions compared with southern, less developed states. The burden of LC is concentrated among older population. Smoking is the main risk factor for LC. CONCLUSIONS: The burden by LC has decreased but is differential between states. LC threatens financially both the health system and individuals, since an important fraction of the population is not protected.

OBJETIVO: Mostrar la mortalidad y los años de vida saluda- bles (Avisas) perdidos por cáncer de pulmón (CP) en México. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Con la herramienta de visualización del estudio de la Carga Global de la Enfermedad, se analizó mortalidad y Avisas por CP según diferentes criterios entre 1990 y 2016. RESULTADOS: La tasa de mortalidad disminuyó de 13.9 a 9.1 por 100 000. Dicha reducción fue mayor entre hombres. Las muertes por CP crecieron de 5 478 a 8 470. La tasa de Avisas se redujo. La carga del CP se concentra en grupos de edad avanzada. Los estados del norte, con mayor nivel sociodemográfico, enfrentan mayor carga, pero presen- taron mayores reducciones comparados con estados menos desarrollados. Fumar es el principal factor de riesgo para CP. CONCLUSIONES: La carga por CP ha disminuido pero es diferencial entre estados. El CP amenaza financieramente el sistema de salud y la población, pues una fracción importante no está protegida.

Lung cancer in Mexico: findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study, 1990-2016 / Cáncer de pulmón en México: hallazgos del estudio de Carga Global de la Enfermedad 1999-2016

Abstract: Objective: To show lung cancer (LC) mortality and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) in Mexico. Materials and methods: With the visualization tools at the Global Burden of Disease Study website, we analyzed LC mortality and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) by state, sex, sociodemographic index (SDI), age, and risk factors between 1990 and 2016. Results: Mortality rate decreased from 13.9 to 9.1 per 100 000 between 1990 and 2016. This reduction is greater among men. However, deaths by LC rose from 5 478 to 8 470. DALYs rate also decreased. Northern states with higher SDI face a larger burden from LC but exhibited greater reductions compared with southern, less developed states. The burden of LC is concentrated among older population. Smoking is the main risk factor for LC. Conclusions: The burden by LC has decreased but is differential between states. LC threatens financially both the health system and individuals, since an important fraction of the population is not protected.

Resumen: Objetivo: Mostrar la mortalidad y los años de vida saludables (Avisas) perdidos por cáncer de pulmón (CP) en México. Material y métodos: Con la herramienta de visualización del estudio de la Carga Global de la Enfermedad, se analizó mortalidad y Avisas por CP según diferentes criterios entre 1990 y 2016. Resultados: La tasa de mortalidad disminuyó de 13.9 a 9.1 por 100 000. Dicha reducción fue mayor entre hombres. Las muertes por CP crecieron de 5 478 a 8 470. La tasa de Avisas se redujo. La carga del CP se concentra en grupos de edad avanzada. Los estados del norte, con mayor nivel sociodemográfico, enfrentan mayor carga, pero presentaron mayores reducciones comparados con estados menos desarrollados. Fumar es el principal factor de riesgo para CP. Conclusiones: La carga por CP ha disminuido pero es diferencial entre estados. El CP amenaza financieramente el sistema de salud y la población, pues una fracción importante no está protegida.

Geospatial, racial, and educational variation in firearm mortality in the USA, Mexico, Brazil, and Colombia, 1990-2015: a comparative analysis of vital statistics data.

BACKGROUND: Firearm mortality is a leading, and largely avoidable, cause of death in the USA, Mexico, Brazil, and Colombia. We aimed to assess the changes over time and demographic determinants of firearm deaths in these four countries between 1990 and 2015. METHODS: In this comparative analysis of firearm mortality, we examined national vital statistics data from 1990-2015 from four publicly available data repositories in the USA, Mexico, Brazil, and Colombia. We extracted medically-certified deaths and underlying population denominators to calculate the age-specific and sex-specific firearm deaths and the risk of firearm mortality at the national and subnational level, by education for all four countries, and by race or ethnicity for the USA and Brazil. Analyses were stratified by intent (homicide, suicide, unintentional, or undetermined). We quantified avoidable mortality for each country using the lowest number of subnational age-specific and period-specific death rates. FINDINGS: Between 1990 and 2015, 106·3 million medically-certified deaths were recorded, including 2 472 000 firearm deaths, of which 851 000 occurred in the USA, 272 000 in Mexico, 855 000 in Brazil, and 494 000 in Colombia. Homicides accounted for most of the firearm deaths in Mexico (225 000 [82·7%]), Colombia (463 000 [93·8%]), and Brazil (766 000 [89·5%]). Suicide accounted for more than half of all firearm deaths in the USA (479 000 [56·3%]). In each country, firearm mortality was highest among men aged 15-34 years, accounting for up to half of the total risk of death in that age group. During the study period, firearm mortality risks increased in Mexico and Brazil but decreased in the USA and Colombia, with marked national and subnational geographical variation. Young men with low educational attainment were at increased risk of firearm homicide in all four countries, and in the USA and Brazil, black and brown men, respectively, were at the highest risk. The risk of firearm homicide was 14 times higher in black men in the USA aged 25-34 years with low educational attainment than comparably-educated white men (1·52% [99% CI 1·50-1·54] vs 0·11% [0·10-0·12]), and up to four times higher than in comparably-educated men in Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico. In the USA, the risk of firearm homicide was more than 30 times higher in black men with post-secondary education than comparably educated white men. If countries could achieve the same firearm mortality rates nationally as in their lowest-burden states, 1 777 800 firearm deaths at all ages and in both sexes could be avoided, including 1 028 000 deaths in men aged 15-34 years. INTERPRETATION: Firearm mortality in the USA, Mexico, Brazil, and Colombia is highest among young adult men, and is strongly associated with race and ethnicity, and low education levels. Reductions in firearm deaths would improve life expectancy, particularly for black men in the USA, and would reduce racial and educational disparities in mortality. FUNDING: Canadian Institutes of Health Research and the University of Toronto Connaught Global Challenge.

Quantifying health impacts and economic costs of PM2.5 exposure in Mexican cities of the National Urban System.

OBJECTIVES: To estimate avoidable mortality, potential years of life lost and economic costs associated with particulate matter PM2.5 exposure for 2 years (2013 and 2015) in Mexico using two scenarios of reduced concentrations (i.e., mean annual PM2.5 concentration < 12 µg/m3 and mean annual PM2.5 concentration < 10 µg/m3). METHODS: The health impact assessment method was followed. This method consists of: identification of health effects, selection of concentration-response functions, estimation of exposure, quantification of impacts quantification and economic assessment using the willingness to pay and human capital approaches. RESULTS: For 2013, we included data from 62 monitoring sites in ten cities, (113 municipalities) where 36,486,201 live. In 2015, we included 71 monitoring sites from fifteen cities (121 municipalities) and 40,479,629 inhabitants. It was observed that reduction in the annual PM2.5 average to 10 µg/would have prevented 14,666 deaths and 150,771 potential years of life lost in 2015, with estimated costs of 64,164 and 5434 million dollars, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Reducing PM2.5 concentration in the Mexican cities studied would reduce mortality by all causes by 8.1%, representing important public health benefits.

Divergence and convergence in cause-specific premature adult mortality in Mexico and US Mexican Hispanics from 1995 to 2015: analyses of 4.9 million individual deaths.

Background: Mexicans and US Mexican Hispanics share modifiable determinants of premature mortality. We compared trends in mortality at ages 30-69 in Mexico and among US Mexican Hispanics from 1995 to 2015. Methods: We examined nationally representative statistics on 4.2 million Mexican and 0.7 million US deaths to examine cause-specific mortality. We used lung cancer indexed methods to estimate smoking-attributable deaths stratified by high and lower burden Mexican states. Results: In 1995-99, Mexican men had about 30% higher relative risk of death from all causes than US Mexican Hispanic men, and this difference nearly doubled to 58% by 2010-15. The divergence between Mexican and US Mexican Hispanic women over this time period was less marked. Among US Mexican Hispanics, declines in the risk of smoking-attributable death constituted about 25-30% of the declines in the overall risk of death. However, among Mexican men the declines in the risk of smoking-attributable deaths were offset by increases in causes of death not due to smoking. Homicide rates (mostly from guns) rose among men in Mexico from 2005 to 2010, but not among Mexican women or US Mexican Hispanic men or women. The probability at 30-69 years of death from cardiac disease diverged significantly between Mexicans and US Mexican Hispanics, reaching 10% and 5% for men, and 7% and 2% for women, respectively. Conclusions: Large differences in premature mortality between otherwise genetically and culturally similar groups arise from a few modifiable factors, most notably smoking, untreated diabetes and homicide.

[Smoking tobacco in Costa Rica: susceptibility, consumption and dependence]. / Tabaquismo en Costa Rica: susceptibilidad, consumo y dependencia.

OBJECTIVE:: To identify factors associated with susceptibility, tobacco use and addiction in young people from 13 to 15 years of age, to determine conditions of risk and identify possible correlates to the development of public policies on smoking in Costa Rica. MATERIALS AND METHODS:: Information available from the four rounds of the Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS) Costa Rica was used. It was based on a sample size of 11 540 youngsters from public and private schools. Indicators of interest and logistic regression models for smoking, susceptibility and addiction were estimated. RESULTS:: The prevalence of current consumption shows a significant decrease over the 14 years of the study (17.3% in 1999 and 5.0% in 2013) and, to a lesser intensity, in the index of smoking susceptibility (19.3% in 1999 and 12.4% in 2013). The proportion of young people with addiction has shown a significant increase in the same period. CONCLUSIONS:: The conditions that explained the significant reduction in smoking prevalence and less susceptibility must be maintained and deepened to achieve full compliance of the MPower measures.

Tabaquismo en Costa Rica: susceptibilidad, consumo y dependencia / Smoking tobacco in Costa Rica: susceptibility, consumption and dependence

Resumen: Objetivo: Identificar elementos asociados con el tabaquismo, la susceptibilidad y la adicción en jóvenes de 13 a 15 años, para determinar condiciones de riesgo y posibles intervenciones desde las políticas sobre tabaco en Costa Rica. Material y métodos: Se utilizó información de las cuatro rondas de la Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS) Costa Rica, con un tamaño muestral de 11 540 jóvenes colegiales. Se estimaron indicadores de interés y modelos de regresión logística para el consumo de tabaco, la susceptibilidad y la adicción. Resultados: La prevalencia de consumo actual disminuyó significativamente a lo largo de los 14 años del estudio (17.3% en 1999 y 5.0% en 2013) y también, aunque en menor intensidad, en el índice de susceptibilidad hacia el fumado (19.3% en 1999 y 12.4% en 2013). La proporción de jóvenes que presentan adicción ha mostrado un aumento importante en el mismo periodo. Conclusiones: Las condiciones que han favorecido la importante reducción en la prevalencia de consumo, y en menor medida de la susceptibilidad, deben mantenerse y profundizarse para lograr el cumplimiento pleno de las medidas del programa MPower.

Abstract: Objective: To identify factors associated with susceptibility, tobacco use and addiction in young people from 13 to 15 years of age, to determine conditions of risk and identify possible correlates to the development of public policies on smoking in Costa Rica. Materials and methods: Information available from the four rounds of the Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS) Costa Rica was used. It was based on a sample size of 11 540 youngsters from public and private schools. Indicators of interest and logistic regression models for smoking, susceptibility and addiction were estimated. Results: The prevalence of current consumption shows a significant decrease over the 14 years of the study (17.3% in 1999 and 5.0% in 2013) and, to a lesser intensity, in the index of smoking susceptibility (19.3% in 1999 and 12.4% in 2013). The proportion of young people with addiction has shown a significant increase in the same period. Conclusions: The conditions that explained the significant reduction in smoking prevalence and less susceptibility must be maintained and deepened to achieve full compliance of the MPower measures.

Beverages Sales in Mexico before and after Implementation of a Sugar Sweetened Beverage Tax.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate changes in sales of sugar sweetened beverages (SSB) and plain water after a 1 peso per liter excise SSB tax was implemented in Mexico in January 2014. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We used sales data from the Monthly Surveys of the Manufacturing Industry from January 2007 to December 2015. We estimated Ordinary Least Squares models to assess changes in per capita sales of SSB and plain water adjusting for seasonality and the global indicator of economic activity. RESULTS: We found a decrease of 7.3% in per capita sales of SSB and an increase of 5.2% of per capita sales of plain water in 2014-2015 compared to the pre-tax period (2007-2013). CONCLUSIONS: Adjusting for variables that change over time and that are associated with the demand for SSB, we found the tax was associated with a reduction in per capita sales of SSB. The effectiveness of the tax should be evaluated in the medium and long term.

[Tobacco consumption, mortality and fiscal policy in Mexico]. / Consumo de tabaco, mortalidad y política fiscal en México.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze tobacco consumption in the last 12 years, its impact on chronic diseases mortality and the potential benefits of fiscal policy in Mexico. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Through the analysis of national health surveys (ENSA, ENSANUT), records of mortality and economic surveys between 2000 and 2012, smoking prevalence, chronic diseases mortality and consumption were estimated. RESULTS: In 2012, 9.2% and 19% of Mexican youths and adults were current smokers. Between 2000 and 2012, smoking prevalence did not change. However, the average consumption among adolescents and adults declined whilst the special tobacco tax has being increased. Mortality attributable to tobacco consumption for four diseases was estimated in 60 000 in 2010. CONCLUSIONS: Tobacco consumption remains the leading cause of preventable death. Increasing taxes on tobacco products could deter the tobacco epidemic and consequently chronic diseases mortality in Mexico.

[Impact of harmful consumption of alcohol in accident-related mortality and chronic diseases in Mexico]. / Impacto del consumo nocivo de alcohol en accidentes y enfermedades crónicas en México.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze alcohol consumption, and its impact on road traffic-related mortality and chronic diseases. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Through the analysis of national health surveys, registry of traffic collisions, mortality records and economic surveys, we estimated prevalence, mortality and consumption indicators. RESULTS: Between 2000 and 2012, alcohol consumption in adolescents remained stable, with a significant increase among adults. Traffic collision rates related with alcohol were 0.36 and 0.58 among adolescents and adults, respectively; 8.4% of the population who suffered traffic injuries was under alcohol effects when the accident occurred. The trend in mortality from two alcohol-attributable diseases has been constant, with an average of 18 000 deaths per year. CONCLUSION: Alcohol abuse causes serious health damages. Tax raises to alcohol, along with other policies, could reduce harmful alcohol consumption and its associated mortality.

Consumo de tabaco, mortalidad y política fiscal en México / Tobacco consumption, mortality and fiscal policy in Mexico

Objetivo. Analizar el tabaquismo, su impacto en mortalidad por enfermedades crónicas y su política fiscal en México. Material y métodos. Se analizaron las encuestas nacionales de salud (ENSA, ENSANUT), registros de mortalidad y encuestas económicas para el periodo 2000-2012 y se estimaron prevalencia, mortalidad y consumo. Resultados. En 2012, 9.2% de los adolescentes y 19% de los adultos son fumadores activos. Entre 2000 y 2012 la prevalencia de tabaquismo permaneció estable. Sin embargo, la cantidad de cigarros promedio consumida se redujo, al tiempo que se han implementado incrementos al impuesto especial a los productos de tabaco. Las muertes atribuibles al consumo de tabaco por cuatro enfermedades se calculó en cerca de 60 000 para 2010. Conclusiones. El tabaquismo es la principal causa de muerte prevenible. El incremento sustancial de los impuestos a los productos de tabaco puede abatir la epidemia de tabaquismo y en consecuencia la mortalidad por enfermedades crónicas en México.

Objective. To analyze tobacco consumption in the last 12 years, its impact on chronic diseases mortality and the potential benefits of fiscal policy in Mexico. Materials and methods. Through the analysis of national health surveys (ENSA, ENSANUT), records of mortality and economic surveys between 2000 and 2012, smoking prevalence, chronic diseases mortality and consumption were estimated. Results. In 2012, 9.2% and 19% of Mexican youths and adults were current smokers. Between 2000 and 2012, smoking prevalence did not change. However, the average consumption among adolescents and adults declined whilst the special tobacco tax has being increased. Mortality attributable to tobacco consumption for four diseases was estimated in 60 000 in 2010. Conclusions. Tobacco consumption remains the leading cause of preventable death. Increasing taxes on tobacco products could deter the tobacco epidemic and consequently chronic diseases mortality in Mexico.

Impacto del consumo nocivo de alcohol en accidentes y enfermedades crónicas en México / Impact of harmful consumption of alcohol in accident-related mortality and chronic diseasses in Mexico

Objetivo. Analizar el consumo de alcohol, su relación con accidentes de tránsito y su impacto en enfermedades crónicas. Material y métodos. Usando encuestas nacionales de salud, registros de colisiones, lesionados y muertes, así como encuestas económicas, se estimaron indicadores de prevalencia, mortalidad y consumo. Resultados. Entre 2000 y 2012, la prevalencia de consumo de alcohol en adolescentes se mantuvo estable con un incremento importante en adultos. La tasa de colisiones de tránsito con presencia de alcohol fue de 0.36 y 0.58 en adolescentes y adultos, respectivamente. De la población con lesiones de tránsito, 8.4% estaba bajo efectos del alcohol al momento de lesionarse. La mortalidad por dos enfermedades atribuibles al alcohol se ha mantenido en alrededor de 18 000 fallecimientos anuales. Conclusiones. El abuso en el consumo alcohol implica graves daños a la salud. El incremento de impuestos al alcohol, junto con otras medidas, reduciría el consumo nocivo y la mortalidad asociada.

Objective. To analyze alcohol consumption, and its impact on road traffic-related mortality and chronic diseases. Materials and methods. Through the analysis of national health surveys, registry of traffic collisions, mortality records and economic surveys, we estimated prevalence, mortality and consumption indicators. Results. Between 2000 and 2012, alcohol consumption in adolescents remained stable, with a significant increase among adults. Traffic collision rates related with alcohol were 0.36 and 0.58 among adolescents and adults, respectively; 8.4% of the population who suffered traffic injuries was under alcohol effects when the accident occurred. The trend in mortality from two alcohol-attributable diseases has been constant, with an average of 18 000 deaths per year. Conclusion. Alcohol abuse causes serious health damages. Tax raises to alcohol, along with other policies, could reduce harmful alcohol consumption and its associated mortality.

[Absenteeism attributable to smoking in the Mexican Social Security Institute, 2006-2009]. / Costos por ausentismo laboral atribuibles al consumo de tabaco en el Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social y en México, 2006-2009.

OBJECTIVE: To calculate the absenteeism costs by lung cancer, cerebrovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and acute myocardial infarction attributable to smoking in the Mexican Social Security Institute (IMSS) and the occupied population from 2006 to 2009. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Productivity loss data from selected illnesses were obtained from IMSS records. The smoking attributable fraction was used, and extrapolation to occupied population was conducted. RESULTS: IMSS paid $143.9 million pesos (2009 prices) attributable to smoking between 2006 and 2009. The productivity loss was $298.2 million pesos and $437.8 million pesos in the occupied population, attributable to smoking. CONCLUSIONS: Tobacco smoking implies costs to the individual, families and society, which urge to strengthen policies contained in the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control by the WHO.

Costos por ausentismo laboral atribuibles al consumo de tabaco en el Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social y en México, 2006-2009 / Absenteeism attributable to smoking in the Mexican Social Security Institute, 2006-2009

OBJETIVO: Calcular los costos por ausentismo laboral atribuibles al tabaquismo en los asegurados del IMSS y población ocupada en México para el periodo 2006-2009. MATERIAL y MÉTODOS: Los costos se estimaron usando fracciones atribuibles para cáncer pulmonar, enfermedad cerebrovascular, enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica e infarto agudo de miocardio, así como registros de salarios y días de incapacidad por esas enfermedades en asegurados del IMSS. Los parámetros encontrados se extrapolaron a la población ocupada. RESULTADOS: El IMSS erogó 143.9 millones de pesos a precios de 2009 atribuibles al tabaquismo como subsidio por incapacidad en el período 2006-2009. La productividad perdida atribuible al tabaquismo en asegurados del IMSS ascendió a 298.2 millones de pesos y a 437.8 millones de pesos en población ocupada del país en el mismo período. CONCLUSIONES: El tabaquismo impone costos importantes a las instituciones de seguridad en el país y causa pérdidas en la productividad. Por tanto, deben fortalecerse las políticas gubernamentales de control del tabaco incluidas en el Convenio Marco para el Control del Tabaco.

OBJECTIVE: To calculate the absenteeism costs by lung cancer, cerebrovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and acute myocardial infarction attributable to smoking in the Mexican Social Security Institute (IMSS) and the occupied population from 2006 to 2009. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Productivity loss data from selected illnesses were obtained from IMSS records. The smoking attributable fraction was used, and extrapolation to occupied population was conducted. RESULTS: IMSS paid $143.9 million pesos (2009 prices) attributable to smoking between 2006 and 2009. The productivity loss was $298.2 million pesos and $437.8 million pesos in the occupied population, attributable to smoking. CONCLUSIONS: Tobacco smoking implies costs to the individual, families and society, which urge to strengthen policies contained in the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control by the WHO.